|
Paper Index:
Introduction
Research Aims
Research Methodology
Interviews
Pilot study
Other sources of data
Early findings
Careers, Timing, Luck and Choice - A Brief Literature Review
A review of early findings
Personality, Motivation and Energy - A Brief Literature Review
Findings
Conclusions
References
Introduction
Research involving first line managers and careers must initially deal with two important questions- who are 'first line managers' and what do we mean by 'careers'? Review of management literature finds both terms used in different ways, which is not surprising given the tremendous range of times and contexts that have produced the literature itself. There exists a large amount of literature on careers, but little in conjunction with the first line manager perspective. For the purposes of this research, a working definition of the first line manager (FLM) has been drawn up as:
"An individual at the first level of management, with supervisory or team responsibility for individuals and tasks. Operating primarily in real-time, the first line manager works closely with the workforce to contribute to the goals of the organisation"
With regard to 'career', it was decided to let the research participants explain what they understood as 'career success', with reference to their own lives.
Research Aims
The overall aim is to reach a greater understanding of the factors involved in an individual's ability to
progress into, through and from the first level of management. More specifically, the aims are:
-
to understand how FLMs perceive career progression
-
to assess the nature and process of progression in terms of factors perceived
by participants as facilitating or inhibiting the desire and ability to progress, including gender issues, personal skills, competences and aspirations
-
to assess the impact of energising factors at critical junctures in a FLM's
career progression.
Research Methodology
The research is being conducted within a qualitative framework, which is more appropriate to issues dealing with people and management (Remenyi et al 1998). The ontological assumption is that there are multiple realities, which can be viewed in different ways, depending on the individual and context. Within a Naturalistic Inquiry framework (Lincoln & Guba 1985), the researcher and researched subjects work
together to create/ construct understandings leading to a "commitment to the study of the world from the point of view of the interacting individual" and recognise that those constructions are "attempts to make sense of or to interpret experience" (Denzin & Lincoln 1998, p243). It follows then that the research itself becomes experiential, with an appreciation of the "interaction of person and context" which is "complex, shifting and dynamic" (Marshall 1995, p159). This leads to more holistic, subjective, idiographic research which qualitative researchers find more meaningful. (Sikes & Aspinall 1987).
Interviews
A key feature of Naturalistic Inquiry is the use of human instrument and qualitative methods, notably interviewing. Using loosely-structured interviews, the participant is given full opportunity to introduce and explore issues of relevance to him or her within the area of the research questions. Critical Incident Technique (Flanagan 1954, Chell 1998) has been incorporated into the interviews. This method encourages participants to specify which incidents they would describe as critical. Further research data can then be elicited through description of the event. In this study, most participants have chosen job moves as 'critical incidents' and have then talked through the organisational circumstances in which the position arose, together with personal data to illuminate the context which allowed them to take advantage of the opportunity. Participants have made reference to a sketched out time-line or a prepared CV, to enable them to identify significant times in their career.
Pilot study
A pilot study of eleven participants has been carried out, following a pre-pilot of five interviews. The initial five were general discussions prior to the formal commencement of the research, but contributed to a pre-understanding (Gummesson 1991) and interest in the subject area. Early participants were chosen through purposive sampling using maximum variation as advocated by Lincoln and Guba (1985), which allowed the identification of some common important patterns. Contacts were drawn from teaching and External Verification for NEBS Management Certificate, Diploma and NVQ Management programmes. Using a snowballing technique, a variety of individuals have been brought in, including:
* people who were still first line managers,
* those who had moved up their firm's hierarchy to middle management,
* those who had moved out of management posts altogether, and
* those who had moved out of and back into first line management.
The sample included men and women, with a mix of age and work environment.
Other sources of data
Various participants also brought in documentary evidence regarding their careers and work roles, including CVs, job descriptions, organisation charts and job evaluations. This helped triangulation and to contextualise their situations. They were useful as aides memoire for the participant in talking through career progress. Invitations by some participants to talk to other managers or employees at the workplace were taken up and this gave additional insight into the context.
Early findings
The following is a list of the potential key themes that have arisen through analysis of the literature and pilot interviews to date:
Theme Research aims
Careers aims 1,2
Timing aims 2,3
Luck aims 2,3
Choice aims 2,3
Personality aims 2,3
Motivation aims 2,3
Energy aims 2,3
Gender aim 2
Personal Mobility aim 2
Home-Work balance aims 1,2
Organisational context aims 2,3
Networking aims 2,3
Mentors aim 3
For the purposes of this paper, two groups of key themes have been formed, whilst acknowledging that some dimensions of the thematic groups overlap. A brief literature review of each group will precede the initial findings and comments. The themes of gender, personal mobility, home-work balance, organisational context and networking and mentors are not covered in this paper, although it must be emphasised that they are all seen as playing a part in the stories of the participants.
Careers, Timing, Luck and Choice - A Brief Literature Review
Careers
Organisational and career theory is recognising that the rapid changes in the work environment are affecting individuals' careers (Watts 1996, Herriott 1992, Hall & Mirvis 1995, Handy 1998). The concept of career has itself undergone redefinition, so that it is no longer restricted to the image of the ambitious professional climbing the career ladder within a single organisation. Careers are variously described as boundaryless (DeFillippi & Arthur 1994), portfolio (Handy 1998), protean (Hall 1976), intelligent (Arthur et al 1995) and as multi- careers (Hall 1976), all recognising the demise of the once accepted traditional ladders (Watts et al 1981). One can argue that most of the above were written with an emphasis on knowledge-based or skilled workers, whereas many first line managers may not have the formal qualifications or expertise to allow them to have a portfolio or boundaryless career, for example.
The branch of traditional careers literature dealing with process brought forth concepts of cycles (Schein 1978) or stages (Super 1980). Careers could be planned for additional effectiveness, based on underlying assumptions that success equals promotions, status and salary increases (Wood 1999, Marshall 1995). Baruch (1999, p433) suggests that a "career belongs to the individual, but in many (if not most) cases, it will be planned and managed for the individual by the organisation". This does not fit comfortably with the modern concepts of an individual managing their own career (Handy 1998) and was one area of interest in the research. How do participants feel about the ownership and management of their career?
Marshall (1995), in work with higher level managers, brings out a contrast in approaches to career, known as agency and communion approaches. Agency refers to planning of careers with a long-term approach and is based on an assumption by the individual of having some control of the process. Marshall argues that this may not be viable in the current context of work and that women managers are unlikely to adopt this approach, but rather use a more communion-based, flexible and responsive approach to their careers. However, career planning is still seen as important to 'make it to the top' (Golzen & Garner 1990), but increasingly planning is about heightening self-awareness and recognising potential development opportunities, plus potential barriers or blockages to progression in an ever-changing work environment (Holbeche 1995). The key to survival and even progression in this environment according to Kanter (1992) is employability rather than just employment.
Timing
The change of career opportunities is relevant to the issue of timing, with Arthur et al (1989) highlighting that the shortening of projects and career elements potentially makes timing more crucial. The term critical juncture has been brought into the aims to represent the timing for the individual when the opportunity for advancement through, for example organisational re-structuring, coincides with the individual's readiness for change. This has links with the following from a range of literature:
A barometric event (Miles & Huberman 1994)
A critical incident (Chell 1998)
A protean turning point (Van Maanen 1977)
A critical juncture (Dawson 1994; Glaser & Strauss 1971)
A conjunctural moment (Gramsci 1971)
A transitional juncture (Cytrynbaum & Crites 1989)
Luck
Changes in an individual career are sometimes out down to happenstance, serendipity or luck (Evetts 2000, Hall 1976, Nicholson & West 1988), but John Peters (1997) warns that this might mean we might miss the meaning or message behind our experiences. He suggests instead that we need "to do more with our valuable and hard-earned experiences than dismiss them as good luck or bad luck because ultimately we can recognise instead that our actions have a consequence". Some 'luck' may be deemed apparent in being in the right/ wrong place at the right/ wrong time, for example if an organisational re-structuring takes place. Nicholson and West (1988) found of the managers surveyed in their research of mainly middle and top level managers, that more than half were in positions with no previous incumbent.
Choice
Elements of choice are also relevant here. Schein (1978) and Radford (1998) advocate recognition of available options, whereas Anderson (1998) is sceptical about the range of choice actually available. She emphasises that due to a distinct limitation of options for many individuals, there is little real choice.
A review of early findings
When asked how they would describe a 'successful career', although some participants saw career success as financial gain (Steve), most stressed the subjective elements:
"Well, basically, fulfilment, at the end of the day." (Jim)
"Having an idea of what you want to do and achieving it." (Ann)
"Achieving something - a goal or something you know. It's difficult because a lot of it's personal." (Adam)
Ambition was brought out alongside the concept of career planning which suggests an idea of progress through the ranks or outside the current employment situation into self-employment. Participants undertook a variety of approaches to career planning, ranging from the long-term planned to the totally unplanned. There was more evidence of planning among male and unmarried female participants. The approach is subject to change, however, throughout the career period discussed, with three participants apparently becoming less agentic. Ian, after stating he had no early ambitions, except for travel and variety, found a drive for promotion in the middle years, when his story reflects a mainly agentic approach. Early and later years, however, reflect an inclination to a more communion approach. Adam, still in his 20's, feels work is his personal focus and is often told by his manager that he works too hard or too long. He says he is ambitious for both himself and his firm, but thinks his ambition may take him from employment into self-employment. Kim was keen for promotions- if only to show her Dad she could make it- but described reaching thirty the previous year as a watershed in her life. After a personal "spring clean" she now felt she took a more balanced view of work and home life and her behaviour was less careerist (Baruch 1999). Steph, at thirty, retained her ambition for new challenges and higher level positions and a sense of career remains important for her, although again ultimately her preferred direction would be into self-employment.
Gail, Elaine and Ann all stated they had never had long or medium term career plans:
"I've never got a set plan of what I do - it just evolved." (Gail)
"It just seems to have happened." (Elaine)
"I've never set my sights on anything." (Ann)
Steve believed it was no use to plan:
"You never know what's round the corner, do you?"
Their careers seemed to fit the Marshall communion approach quite neatly- they had all had to respond to change throughout their careers. Gail had been more pro-active in that she had sought out the opportunities and moved into different, but related, organisations, but without any overt long or even medium term plan. Elaine, Ann and Steve had all been with the same organisations for over twenty years, but had moved positions during that period.
Tony felt that the organisation should bear more responsibility for an individual's career development:
"There should be a mapped out progression for everybody in this business. There isn't.... there should be..."
He felt thwarted that there was now little opportunity for him to move upwards in his present firm, as the level above him (directorship) is traditionally limited to outsiders brought in by senior management. He had moved into and beyond the FLM role quite quickly, but now felt plateaued. Most participants said that it was basically up to them to take responsibility for their own careers. As managers, they mainly tried to support their own staff and gave opportunities for career and personal development, but the message that came across was mostly that it was seen as up to the individual to provide the impetus and look out for opportunities. This seemed to contradict Baruch's suggestion that organisations manage individual's careers for them, although there was more evidence of this from those in larger organisations. Even so, Ann said that there are few upwards career openings for individuals in her organisation:
"I think if you were ambitious, you'd leave."
and Jim at a large company, felt there was little career planning for non-graduates in the company. He felt he had to make things happen and create the openings for himself.
The timing of job move opportunities has been highly relevant for some participants. The five pre-pilot all moved into promoted posts following restructuring and acknowledged that timing had been a relevant factor in applying for posts that had arisen at that time. Family and other commitments had lessened (Wendy, Maggie, Linda, Ruth); husband's job loss (Maggie, Linda, Ruth); and husband's illness (Sue) had been important factors in their decisions to apply for new jobs- all into newly created or re-titled and expanded roles. Discussing possible opportunities with others at work and in their families had energised them to making decisions to pursue career moves.
Likewise for pilot participants Kim, Elaine, Ann, Jim, Steph and Adam, the opportunity arose at what could be described as a critical juncture, whereby the timing of organisational events fitted their life course. Adam, for example, laughed when asked about the timing:
"It worked out very well."
and maintained that he may well have left the firm if the post had not come up when it did. Kim decided to move posts when a personal relationship ended at the same time as work was re-organising the head office. A post arose which she discussed with her managing director and was appointed to.
Several participants suggested that luck or fate had played a part in their career moves:
"and then fate struck a blow." (Ian)
"If you're lucky, you get it." (Gail)
"I was lucky to get it." (Elaine)
"I was fortunate." (Tony)
It could be argued that their stories showed that previous actions and behaviour could be seen as facilitating the career changes, for example through self-development activities or networking. There was a recognition that things couldn't be left to 'fate', but a more pro-active approach was perhaps needed if career progression was to take place:
"You take those opportunities when you can." (Gail)
"I stuck my hand up - I'll give it a go." (Jim)
Choices were discussed with participants, again with a variety of responses. Ian referred back to the 1960's and 1970's when he thought there was more choice, especially for well-qualified individuals. Tony and Steve, both in manufacturing, had seen frequent redundancies, Tony having had direct experience of redundancy from his FLM position with an earlier employer. Choice of employer was seen as limited for them at the time as their industry was not very buoyant. However, Steve at one stage chose to move out of his FLM role and to work on the line. His choice was supported by his wife, despite loss of status and lower basic pay. He had taken the decision as he felt he could no longer enjoy, nor cope with, the FLM job. He suffered sleepless nights as his section was severely understaffed, having been cut by 50% on a previous re-structuring. He felt he could no longer take pride in his work. However, after a short time on the line he chose to take an FLM post, followed by the assistant manager post when a vacancy arose, having previously turned down two offers from other section managers. He said this was partly because he enjoyed working with the new manager, but also "felt it was the right time".
Jim had also chosen to move from his FLM role after what he saw as "a nightmare time". Technically-trained, he found the co-ordination of other technicians especially difficult and moved out of industry altogether, into a building society, where he became FLM of two staff. He subsequently chose to move back to his previous company and felt that he had learned from his experience and was now better able to cope with the people management. He currently co-ordinates a technical project.
Personality, Motivation and Energy - A Brief Literature Review
Personality
Much career theory, primarily from a psychological perspective, is involved with the role of personality and personal interaction with the work environment. Schein's theory of career anchors (1978) provides a model based on eight personal competences and needs. Holland's six personality types (1973) prescribe a best-fit model of personality to job, using descriptors of realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. Tokar et al (1998), Marshall (1993, 1995) and Arnold (1997) describe how personality affects life outcomes, including career. The current research study makes no attempt to measure personality, but does bring in aspects of participants' self-description and comments on how they feel their personality has affected career. This is linked with the concept of self-identity (Giddens 1991). No attempt has been made at any objective measure of personality as this does not fit with the overall paradigm of naturalistic inquiry.
Motivation and energy
One aspect of personality could be seen as the individual level of motivation to work. Motivation is the driving force behind an individual's action and is influenced by a need for achievement (McClelland 1965). Writers in the area of motivation and work include Maslow (1954), Herzberg (1959) and Vroom (1992). More recent work on work and the individual has built on the theory of the psychological contract, which is increasingly seen as under threat as uncertainties in the workplace increase, has led to questions on how far an organisation can keep its side of the contract with regard to individual support and career development. It is suggested by Herriott et al (1997) that an individual's diminished loyalty and commitment to the organisation, with falling levels of motivation towards the work itself, are by-products of the changing world of work at the end of the 20th century.
A high level of motivation, however, should lead to an increase in personal energy. Less is written on the concept of energy in management and career literature, but Vroom does bring it in to his equation on motivation and drive. More recent works which have brought energy into the picture include those by Wheatley (1992), Tosey (1994) and Bagshaw & Bagshaw (1999). These writers all incorporate an awareness of the spiritual dimension of work and see the 21st century as putting more emphasis on the holistic aspects of life in the workplace.
The workplace and social meetings can assist in enhancing energy. Joint actions, such as talking through career plans or projects with others (Young, Valach & Collin 1996), can provide the energy to drive the impetus to specific action. Law and Ward (1981, pp. 152,3) state that social structures can be viewed as the field where "human and social energies are transmitted and invested" and that "the boundaries within and between elements in the personal and situational structures are, themselves, highly permeable to exchange of energy".
Findings
The most striking aspect of the participating managers was their concern for people, which gave some grounds for optimism in the workplace if they treated their staff as they believed they did. They did not, however, feel that the same level of understanding was always shown by their line managers. Tony made metaphorical reference to "daily beatings with a big stick" from his senior manager.
Many described themselves as team-workers (e.g. Gail, Tony, Ann) with a keen sense of fairness (Jim, Ann, Steve). Words used in describing their own and other's job roles indicated people skills, for example:
"I encourage the staff to..." (Ann)
"I know what the blokes want." (Tony)
"Tony's fair with people." (Steve)
There was also evidence of their taking a pro-active role, both in developing roles for themselves (Adam, Jim, Steph) and in undertaking training for personal development (including Adam, Kim, Jim, Steph). The need to be involved in decisions and to some extent the direction of the organisation as a whole or their part of it, was apparent in statements from most of the participants:
"I like to be involved in that." (Steph)
"I want to be more involved and making the changes happen." (Gail)
Work was seen as more interesting if the manager could feel actively involved in effecting the decisions involving their team or section. Ian stressed the motivating effects of new projects and Steph was eager to bring more up-to-date the GP practice in which she works by developing a business approach.
Although occasional self-doubts arose, this was not a cause for reduction in overall confidence, but seemed to be regarded as opportunities for overcoming new challenges. A positive slant was put on what some might see as negative or problematic circumstances. It was particularly revealing that none of the participants spoke of 'problems' when asked about 'hassles' at work, but used other terms, including 'challenges'. Gail, who has recently moved jobs, Jim, Steph and Adam all specifically said that they liked to face new challenges and that they enjoyed change. All the participants gave some examples of where they had relished overcoming some particular hurdle. Not all were equally self-assured and personal confidence was mentioned more than once by two of the older women managers. Kanter (1992) and Marshall (1995) regard self-confidence (actual or perceived levels) as one of the relevant issues for women managers and careers.
Pride in their work was apparent and underlined the importance the work role can have in personal identity. Gail expected high standards from both herself and her staff. She had left a previous post after a relatively short time, when workplace expectations regarding standards in client care generally were not met. Elaine, Steve and Ann all focused on their competence in their jobs and Adam was especially emphatic that he liked things to be right. He was happy to ask if something was unclear and in addition sought out the underlying rationale behind decisions to enable him to reach a greater understanding.
Most came across as loyal to their firms in discussions with, an outsider, in this case the researcher. This was at a time when the weakening of the psychological contract was seen as undermining that loyalty (Herriott et al 1997). Adam, Elaine, Ann, Jim, Kim and Steph all emphasised commitment to their employer organisation. Tony and Steve gave a less rosy picture, with open resentment against senior management apparent. Their concern for their teams, however, was in line with Herriott's findings.
Energy levels were perceived as high, with the participants talking enthusiastically about their jobs. The 'itchy feet' described by Steph as representing her way of knowing it was time for a move, found new paths to walk and new challenges to overcome. Personal drive, she felt, was being managed and fulfilled. Ann was openly thrilled at just how satisfying her working life was:
"You never know how much you're going to get out of it."
and Kim's 'spring clean' had re-motivated her in new directions, taking her back to the "buzz of hotel life" and away from a more routine head office environment. The critical decisions had energised them into action. This was frequently after discussions with others- mainly partners, but also with colleagues, managers and friends.
Conclusions
Early research with participants found present and former first line managers happy to talk about their career progression. There were many indications of careers being measured by subjective, intrinsic factors, such as fulfilment and a satisfactory balance of work and non-work. The degree and scope of any career planning has been varied, both among individual participants and within the career course of some individuals. The timing of moves at critical junctures, recognised as significant by some participants, gives scope for further investigation. The decisions and the reasons for some opportunities, but not others, being followed up linked to the energising factors specified in the third research aim. These may partly be explained by the timing but other issues need further in-depth examination.
The research is continuing with incorporation of another cohort of participants, together with an ongoing feed back process through individual and group liaison.
References
Anderson P (1998) Choice: can we choose it? in Radford J (Ed) (1998) Gender and Choice in Education and Occupation London: Routledge
Arnold J M (1997) Managing Careers into the twenty-first century London: Paul Chapman Publishing
Arthur M B, Hall D T & Lawrence B S (Eds) (1989) Handbook of Career Theory New York: Cambridge University Press
Arthur M B, Claman P H & DeFillippi R J (1995) Intelligent Enterprise, Intelligent Career Academy of Management Executive v 9 (4) pp. 7-22
Bagshaw M & Bagshaw C (1999) Leadership in the C21st Industrial and Commercial Training v 31 (6) pp. 236-239
Baruch Y (1999) Integrated Career systems for the 2000s International Journal of Manpower 20 (7) pp. 432-457
Brown D et al (Eds) (1996) Career Choice and Development San Francisco: Jossey Bass
Burgoyne J, Pedler M & Boydell T (1994) Towards the Learning Company Maidenhead: McGraw Hill
Chell E & Adam A (1994) Researching culture and entrepreneurship: a qualitative approach Discussion paper 94-9, School of Business Management, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Chell E (1998) Critical Incident Technique in Symon & Cassell (Eds) (1998) Qualitative Methods and Analysis in Organisational Research London: SAGE Publications
Child J & Partridge B (1982) Lost Managers- Supervisors in Industry and Society Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Crytrynbaum S & Crites J O (1989) The Utility of Adult Development Theory in Understanding Career Adjustment Process in Arthur M B, Hall D T & Lawrence B S (Eds) (1989) Handbook of Career Theory New York: Cambridge University Press
Dawson P (1994) Organisational Change; a Processual Approach London: Paul Chapman
DeFillippi R J& Arthur M B (1994) The Boundaryless Career: a competency based perspective Journal of Organizational Behavior 15 pp. 307-324
Denzin N & Lincoln Y (1998) The Landscape of Qualitative Research California: SAGE Publications
Evetts J (2000) Analysing Change in Women's Careers Gender, Work & Organisation v 7 (1) pp. 57-67
Flanagan J (1954) The Critical Incident Technique Psychological Bulletin 51 (4) pp. 327-358
Giddens A (1991) Modernity and Self-identity Cambridge: Polity Press
Glaser B & Strauss A (1971) Status Passage Chicago: Aldine
Golzen G & Garner A (1990) Smart Moves London: Basil Blackwell
Gramsci A (1971) Selections from Prison Notebooks Edited and translated by Q Hoare & G Nowell Smith London: Lawrence & Wishart
Gummeson E (1991) Qualitative Methods in Management Research California: SAGE Publications
Hall D T (1976) Careers in Organizations Glenview IL: Scott, Foresman & Company
Hall D T & Mirvis P H (1995) The New Career Contract: Developing the whole person at midlife and beyond Journal of Vocational Behavior 47 pp. 269-289
Handy C (1998) The Hungry Spirit London: Hutchinson
Herriott P (1992) The Career Management Challenge London: SAGE Publications
Herriott P et al (1997) The Content of the Psychological Contract British Journal of Management v 8
Herzberg F (1959) The Motivation to Work John Wiley
Holbeche L (1995) Career Development in Flatter Structures Roffey Park Research Report
Holland J (1973) Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall
Kanter R M (1992) When Giants Learn to Dance London: Routledge
Law B & Ward R (1981) Motivation in Watts A G, Super D E & Kidd J E (Eds) (1981) Career Development in Britain Cambridge: CRAC Publications
Lincoln Y & Guba E (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry California: SAGE Publications
Marshall J (1993) Women Managers: Travellers in a Male World Chichester: John Wiley
Marshall J (1995) Women Managers Moving on - Exploring Careers and Life Choices London: Routledge
Maslow A (1954) Motivation and Personality Harper & Row
McClelland D (1965) The Achieving Society Van Nostrand
Miles M & Hubermann A (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis 2nd edition California: SAGE Publications
Nicholson N & West M (1988) Managerial Job Changes: Men and Women in Transition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Peters J (1997) Good luck and bad luck- a personal story The TQM Magazine v 9 (6) pp. 388-389
Phillips S & Blustein D (1998) Readiness for Career Choices: Planning, Exploring and Deciding Career Development Quarterly 43 pp. 63-84
Radford J (1988) (Ed) Gender and Choice in Education and Occupation London: Routledge
Remenyi et al (1998) Doing Research in Business and Management London: SAGE Publications
Schein E H (1978) Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs Reading MA: Addison Wesley
Sikes P & Aspinall K (1987) Time to Reflect; Biographical Study, Personal Insight & Professional Development in Young R & Collin A (1987) Interpreting Career Westport CT: Praeger
Super D E (1980) Approaches to Occupational Choice and Career Development in Watts A G, Super D E & Kidd J E (Eds) (1981) Career Development in Britain Cambridge: CRAC Publications
Tokar D M et al (1998) Personality and Vocational Behavior- a selective review of the literature 1993-1997 Journal of Vocational Behavior v 53 pp. 115-153
Tosey P (1994) Energies of Organization and Change in Burgoyne J, Pedler M & Boydell T (1994) Towards the Learning Company Maidenhead: McGraw Hill
Van Maanen J (Ed) (1977) Organizational Careers: Some New Perspectives New York: John Wiley & Sons
Vroom V (1992) Work and Motivation Wiley
Watts A (1996) Careerquake: Policy supports for self-managed careers London: Demos
Watts A G, Super D E & Kidd J E (Eds) (1981) Career Development in Britain Cambridge: CRAC Publications
Wheatley M (1992) Leadership and the New Science San Francisco California: Berrett Koehler
Wood M (1999) The Psychology of career theory- a new perspective? Journal of Industrial Training 23 (4) pp. 218-223
Young R & Collin A (1992) Interpreting Career Westport CT: Praeger
Young R A, Valach L & Collin A (1996) A Contextual Explanation of Career in Brown D et al (Eds) (1996) Career Choice and Development San Francisco: Jossey Bass
This research paper has been reproduced by kind permission of The University of Derby and NEBS Management.
|
